Confined Space Rescue

1. Introduction

Confident spaces are present everywhere in the industry, and they are the places where accidents occur frequently. Many conditions that cause hazards do not refer only to closed spaces, but they deteriorate by introducing a fenced area in a confined space. Indoor spaces are much more dangerous than normal confident spaces. Seemingly minor changes in conditions can instantly change the status of these jobs from harmless to life-threatening.
Many workers are injured and killed each year while working in confined spaces Every day approximately 1,000 men and women worldwide die from work-related accidents and more than 6,500 workers die from diseases related to work (Päivi H., Jukka T. and Kaija L. S. (2005)). Developing countries face the greatest burden, with a higher rate of accidents due to economic challenges.
In these countries, the informal economy accounts for a large percentage of economic activity. As a result, many work-related accidents and occupational diseases go unreported. An estimated 60% of the fatalities have been among the rescuers  (Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety n.d.).

A confined space can be more hazardous than regular workspaces for many reasons. To effectively control the risks associated with working in a confined space, a confined space hazard assessment and control program should be implemented in any confined space workplace. Before putting together this program, have to review the specific regulations that apply to confined space workplaces. Jurisdictions within any country’s regulations dealing with confined space entry. The regulations can vary slightly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
If the confined space cannot be made safe for the worker by taking precautions then workers should NOT enter the confined space until it is made safe to enter by additional means. All confined spaces should be considered hazardous unless a competent person has determined otherwise through a risk assessment.
Introduction to Confined Space:

1.1 . Definition of confined space

The term confident space is used to designate certain structures such as tanks, vessels, tanks, sewers, etc. Every space in which people work may be or may become a confident space. The term describes the environment in which hazards can occur -it can be structural, process, mechanical, atmospheric, physical, chemical, biological, and ergonomic hazards, and dangers from liquid or solid material.

A confined space is not always obvious and, therefore, there are several definitions to help identify if work will be carried out in a confined space.

Under the Confined Spaces Regulations, a confined space can be any space of an enclosed nature (e.g. with limited openings) where there is a risk of death or serious injury from hazardous substances or dangerous conditions (e.g. explosive atmospheres, poisoning, or lack of oxygen, etc.).

Generally speaking, a confined space is a fully or partially enclosed space that:

1. 1. Has limited or restricted entrance or exit, or a configuration that can complicate first aid, rescue, and evacuation;

Confined space openings are limited primarily by size or location. Openings are usually small in size perhaps as small as 45cm in diameter, and are difficult to move through easily. Small openings may make it very difficult to get needed equipment in or out of the spaces, especially protective equipment such as respirators needed for entry into spaces with hazardous atmospheres, or life-saving equipment when rescue is needed. However, in some cases openings may be very large, for example, open-topped spaces such as pits, degreasers, excavations, and ships’ holds. Access to open-topped spaces may require the use of ladders, hoists, or other devices, and escape from such areas may be very difficult in emergencies.

1. 2. Unfavorable natural ventilation, or other emergency response activities;

Because air may not move in and out of confined space freely due to the design, the atmosphere inside a confined space can be very different from the atmosphere outside. Deadly gases may be trapped inside, particularly if the space is used to store or process chemicals or organic substances that may decompose. There may be enough oxygen inside the confined space to support life, or the air could be so oxygen-reach that it is likely to increase the chance of fire or explosion if a source of ignition is present.

1. 3. Not designed for continuous worker occupancy and can represent a risk for the health and safety of anyone who enters, due to one or more of the following factors:
      • its design, construction, location, or atmosphere;
      • the materials or substances in it;
      • work activities being carried out in it, or;
      • the mechanical, process, and safety hazards present.

Most confined spaces are not designed for workers to enter and work in them on a routine basis. They are designed to store a product, enclose materials and processes, or transport products or substances. Therefore, occasional worker entry for inspection, maintenance, repair, cleanup, or similar tasks is often difficult and dangerous due to chemical or physical hazards within the space.

A confined space in some of the workplaces may have a combination of these three characteristics, which can complicate working in and around these spaces as well as rescue operations during emergencies.

Witherby Publishing Group Ltd in the Pocket Safety Guide Confined Spaces define

confined space as an enclosed or partially enclosed space that:

• • • Is not primarily designed or intended for human occupancy
    • has a restricted entrance or exit because of the location, size, or method

• • • can represent a risk for the health and safety of anyone who enters, because of one or more of the following factors:
    • the design, construction, location, or atmosphere
    • the materials or substances in it
    • work activities being carried out in it
    • mechanical, process, and safety hazards present.

A confined space, despite its name, is not necessarily small  (Witherby Publishing Group Ltd Navigation House (2010)).

Occupational Safety and Health Academy (OSHA) defines a confined space as an enclosed space that meets all of the following 3 criteria:

1. It is large enough for an employee to enter and perform work; for Example A storage tank or a manhole.

A space that is just large enough for a person to squeeze into, but not perform any work, is not a confined space. Similarly, a space that is too small for a person to enter completely is not a confined space.

2. It has limited or restricted means for entry or exit; Example: A small crawl space with a narrow opening, or a tank with a small access hatch.

If a person must contort his or her body to enter or move around inside a space, it probably has a limited means of entry and exit. Climbing through a porthole to enter a space or crawling through a tunnel toward an exit are examples of spaces that have limited means of entry and exit. Another way of measuring limited means of entry and exit is to determine how difficult it would be to remove an injured person from space; if there is a need for a technical rescue to remove an injured person, you probably have a limited means of entry and exit. Evaluate each space on a case-by-case basis.

3. It is not designed for continuous occupancy. Example: An underground utility vault or a wastewater treatment tank (U.S. Department of Labor (2004)).

What is the primary function and purpose of the space? A space that is designed for periodic occupancy is not the same as a space that is designed for continuous occupancy. The presence of a fixed ladder, lighting, or ventilation does not always mean that the space was designed for continuous occupancy. Is the space designed for a person to work there or is it designed to house and protect equipment that needs to be monitored or occasionally maintained? For example, a space may have lighting for periodic occupancy that may be necessary to safely enter and exit, read gauges, or perform maintenance or repairs. Similarly, ventilation may be necessary to keep equipment from overheating or to provide fresh air temporarily (Oregon OSHA (2024)).

The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) defines a confined space as a place that is substantially enclosed (though not always entirely), and where serious injury can occur from exposure to hazardous substances or conditions, for example, from a lack of oxygen. It is also not suitable for continuous human occupation. Unless effectively controlled, serious injury or illness can likely occur from exposure to hazardous substances or conditions within the space or nearby (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Guidance note EBRD Performance Requirement 4 Safe working in confined spaces (2020)).

Definition of Confined Spaces

1.2.  Types of confined spaces

There are different tips for confined spaces that can be found in various workplaces and industries, including but not limited to:

1.2.1 Manufacturing:

Confined spaces “Figure 1” can be found in manufacturing facilities such as tanks, vessels, and boilers used for chemical processing or other industrial processes. Examples of confined spaces in this industry include storage tanks, mixing vessels, pressure vessels and other various facilities.

 

Figure 1: Examples of manufacturing confined spaces

1.2.2 Construction

In the construction industry, confined spaces “Figure 2” can include trenches, excavations, and underground tunnels. Other examples include manholes, sewers, and utility vaults.

Figure 2: Examples of construction confined space

1.2.3 Mining

The mining industry uses confined spaces “Figure 3” such as underground mines, tunnels, and shafts. These spaces can be hazardous due to the presence of toxic gases, explosive dust, and the potential for cave-ins.

Figure 3: Examples of mining confined space

1.2.4 Energy

In the energy sector, confined spaces can be found in power plants, refineries, and other facilities that process or store hazardous materials. Examples include boilers, tanks, pipelines, and furnaces.

 

Figure 4: Examples of energy-confined space

1.2.5 Transportation

Confined spaces can be found “Figure 5” in various modes of transportation, including ships, airplanes, and trains. Examples include cargo holds, fuel tanks, and engine compartments.

Figure 5: Examples of transportation confined space

It is difficult to determine which industry has the most confined spaces. However, some industries such as chemical processing manufacturing, and mining typically have a higher concentration of confined spaces due to the nature of their work and the types of equipment and structures they use.

1.3.  Hazards associated with confined spaces.

The atmosphere that may expose employees to the risk of death, incapacitation, impairment of the ability to self-rescue (i.e. unaided escape from permit space), injury, or acute illness from one or more following causes:

Flammable gas, vapor, or mist over 10% of the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL)

The Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) of a gas or vapor according to OSHA standards, expressed in parts of vapor per million parts of contaminated air.  Many flammable and combustible liquids present an inhalation and a fire hazard.

All hazards found in a regular workspace can also be found in a confined space.

However, they can be even more hazardous in a confined space than in a regular work site. Once hazards are identified, it is critical to institute appropriate control measures to eliminate or, if not possible, reduce and control confined space hazards.

The moment of entry is critical in confined or enclosed space operations. With careful preparation and adequate testing, injuries from fires, explosions, falls, and unsafe atmospheres may be avoided. Remember, acceptable entry conditions must be attained before entry, and those safe conditions must be maintained throughout an entry. This module also explains some of the procedures and precautions that should be in place to safeguard entrants while they are working in a confined space.

Most accidents in permit spaces happen when workers and untrained rescuers do not recognize hazards in the confined spaces or they do not control the hazards before they enter.

Never assume a confined space is safe to enter.

1.3.1 Hazards in confined spaces can include:

1. Poor air quality:
   • • insufficient amount of oxygen for the worker to breathe.
     • toxic gases that could make the worker ill or cause the worker to lose consciousness.
     • asphyxiants – simple asphyxiants are gases that can displace oxygen in the air (normally about 21 percent). Low oxygen levels (19.5 percent or less) can cause symptoms such as rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, clumsiness, emotional upset, and fatigue. As less oxygen becomes available, nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions, coma, and death can occur. Unconsciousness or death could result within minutes following exposure to a simple asphyxiant. Asphyxiants include argon, nitrogen, or carbon monoxide.
2. Chemical exposures due to skin contact or ingestion (as well as inhalation of toxic gases).
3. Fire hazard – An explosive or flammable atmosphere due to flammable liquids and gases and combustible clouds of dust which, if ignited, would lead to fire or explosion.
4. Process-related hazards – such as residual chemicals, or release of contents of a supply line.
5. Physical hazards – noise, heat, cold, radiation, vibration, electrical, and inadequate lighting.
6. Safety hazards – such as moving parts of equipment, structural hazards, engulfment, entanglement, slips, or falls.
7. Vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
8. Shifting or collapse of bulk material (engulfment).
9. Barrier failure that results in a flood or release of free-flowing solid or liquid.
10. Visibility – such as smoke particles in the air.
11. Biological hazards – viruses, bacteria from fecal matter and sludge, fungi, or molds.

Confined space hazards:  

1.4.  Importance of Confined Space Rescue Training

All persons involved in confined space work, whether in supervising, planning, or implementing the safe system of work or in participating in the rescue arrangements should be capable of carrying out their roles without compromising their safety or that of others. To achieve this, adequate instruction and/or training is required for the person entrusted with the res (Health and Safety Authority (2017)) possibility of carrying out the particular role. Appropriate practice and experience, depending on the complexity and skill requirements of the particular role, may also be necessary.

Within the context of his responsibilities, the employer shall take the measures necessary for the safety and health protection of workers, including prevention of occupational risks and provision of information and training, as well as provision of the necessary organization and means (European Union (1989)).

Potential users of breathing apparatus also must have received the appropriate formal training. Persons designated to carry out resuscitation procedures must be trained to carry out those procedures efficiently and effectively. Designated first-aiders need appropriate current certification.

The complexity of the task and the responsibility of the role will determine the level of training required. Training should involve demonstrations and practical exercises as appropriate. Where practice is provided as part of the training, this practice must be realistic in simulating the actual conditions that are likely to be encountered.

Persons entering a confined space to carry out work should be fully informed and have a complete understanding of the potential hazards that the work entails. Trainers and instructors should be appropriately qualified and experienced to carry out their roles effectively.

To ensure the safety and well-being of everyone involved in confined space work, an owner or contractor must provide appropriate and sufficient training to all individuals involved, whether directly or indirectly. This includes workers operating in confined spaces, supervisors, management personnel, standby personnel, all members of the rescue team, and other workers assisting with such work near the confined space.

Both experience and theoretical understanding are essential. Workers should practice using the breathing device correctly and responding appropriately in case of an alarm.

Ensuring that workers have adequate supervision is crucial. Good supervision can assist you in keeping an eye on whether staff possess the skills required for the job and how well their training has worked.

For workers in restricted spaces, a proprietor or contractor should provide the following safety training, among others:

(a)  Induction safety training for all new employees to ensure a thorough safety orientation. Sufficient information about the confined space should be given to the employees, e.g. the nature of the work to be done, hazards involved, and precautionary measures required;

(b)  On-the-job safety training for those who have received induction safety training. On-the-job safety training should include observation of and participation in the actual work practices or some simulated working conditions whilst under close supervision;

(c) Refresher safety training which should be conducted periodically and as frequently as needed. Re-training should also be provided to workers whose safety performance in work in confined spaces is found to be unsatisfactory.

Although training will vary with each task, generally everyone should be trained on:

• • • Recognizing a confined space;
    • The need for a permit to work, and why it should be followed;
    • Emergency procedures, in particular access/ egress/escape;
    • Use, care, and maintenance of PPE and Respiratory Protective Equipment (RPE), and use of other safety equipment such as air monitoring equipment;
    • First aid procedures;
    • Isolation procedures;
    • Rescue procedures;
    • Fire protection;
    • Personal hygiene;
    • Communication;
    • Hazard recognition;
    • Recognizing potential adverse health effects.

Practical exercises and demonstrations should also be a part of training. Employees must be knowledgeable about the tools and protocols used in restricted space work. All members of a Confined Spaces Work Team must possess appropriate and sufficient knowledge, guidance, and training to facilitate the performance of their roles. Members of the rescue team must receive sufficient and appropriate training in rescue operations, emergency protocols, related hazards, and the safe handling of all rescue tools. They should also be told that not all circumstances call for the usage of oxygen gas to increase the oxygen content inside a limited space. It is advised that certain rescue team members receive first-aid instruction, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Furthermore, training for emergency rescue operations in restricted spaces should be provided to individuals who are likely to be involved in such situations. Furthermore, those holding responsibilities related to work management must obtain the appropriate amount of training for their respective roles and obligations. For the non-specialist manager, the IOSH “Managing Safely” course or its equivalent can be considered a sufficient level of training. Training in “Confined Space Awareness for Managers” is deemed necessary for individuals whose jobs specifically require managing work in or around confined spaces (such as Line Managers of Authorized Persons, Defense Infrastructure Organization Facilities Managers, Authority Local Representatives for Project Aqua trine, Building Custodians / Officers, and other personnel). Line managers are in charge of making sure the risks posed by tight areas are equally communicated to employees and contractors under their supervision. that staff and contractors under their control are equally made aware of the hazards presented by confined spaces

Confined Space Training

2 Confined Space Entry

A confined space is among the potentially most dangerous workplaces and confined space entry presents many challenges. Despite high safety precautions, too many accidents still happen worldwide, such as predominantly asphyxiation, exposure to hazardous substances, or traumatic injuries to name just a few. Thus, when working in confined spaces, safety always comes first. Regarding the questions as to what causes an accident, there is more than one answer to that.

Confined space entry is an action by which a person passes through the opening into a permit-required confined space. The entry includes ensuing work activities in space and is considered to have occurred as soon as any part of the entrant’s body breaks the plane of an opening into space

2.1      Procedures for safe entry into a confined space

To deal with any serious and imminent danger to workers inside a confined space, appropriate procedures for safe entry into a confined space should be formulated and implemented according to the nature of the confined space, the risks involved, and the nature of an emergency rescue.

2.1.1  Avoid entering confined spaces, e.g. by doing the work from outside;

2.1.2  If entry to a confined space is unavoidable, develop and implement a safe system of work; and

2.1.3   Devise an appropriate emergency plan before the work starts.

 The following is an elaboration of these basic principles and what you need to do.

2.1.1   Avoid entering confined spaces, e.g. by doing the work from outside;

2.1.1.1 Avoid entering confined spaces;

You need to check if the work can be done another way so that entry to or work in confined spaces is avoided. Better work planning or a different approach can reduce the need for confined space working.

Ask yourself if the intended work is really necessary, or if you could:

• modify the confined space itself or another plant to eliminate the confined space;
• have the work done from outside, for example:

• blockages in silos can be cleared by use of remotely
• operated vibrators or air washers;
• inspection, sampling, and cleaning operations can be done from outside the space using appropriate equipment and tools; and
• remote control monitors can be used for internal inspection of vessels.

2.1.2  If entry to a confined space is unavoidable, develop and implement a safe system of work

If entry to a confined space is unavoidable, a safe system for working inside the space should be developed.

2.1.2.1 Appoint a competent person

A “competent person” should be appointed to carry out a risk assessment of the conditions and the work and activities to be conducted in the confined space, and identify the necessary safety precautions to be taken according to the findings to avoid posing hazards to workers.

A competent person can also be called the team leader or entry control supervisor. They may also be the site supervisor.

The competent person should make recommendations on safety precautions to be taken having regard to the nature of the confined space, the associated risk, and the work involved.

A “competent person” means a person:

1. 1. 1. 1. who has attained the age of 18 years;
         2. who is either:
         3. a. safety officer registered under the Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Safety Officers and Safety Supervisors) Regulations; or
            1. a person who holds a certificate issued by a person whom the Commissioner for Labour has authorized to certify persons as being competent to prepare risk assessment reports; and
         4. who has at least one year’s relevant experience, after obtaining the registration or certification referred to in paragraph b(i) or (ii), in assessing risk to the safety and health of workers working in confined spaces. Ensure that the safe system of work, including the precautions identified, is developed and put into practice. Everyone involved must be properly trained and instructed to ensure they know what to do and how to do it safely. The following checklist is not intended to be exhaustive but includes many essential elements for reference to help prepare a safe work system.

A competent person has the following responsibilities:

• • • Responsible for carrying out the risk assessment for the confined space working.
    • Responsible for developing a safe system of work for the confined space entry.
    • Provides supervision for the confined-space-entry work activity.
    • Provides guidance and assistance to work parties to organize and plan work in the confined space.
    • Completes the ‘permit to work’ for the confined space entry and ensures it has been authorized before entry.
    • Ensures that the confined space is safe for entry. For example, isolations have been completed, a pre-entry air test has been completed, equipment is serviceable and still within its expiry date, and training for all people and workers is suitable for the role and up to date.
    • Responsible for ensuring the risk assessment and safe system of work are carried out correctly.
    • Cancels and signs of the permit to work once the work activity has been completed. If the work task alters such that it no longer fits within the safety limits of the permit to work, the competent person is responsible for ensuring that any changes to the permit are communicated to the whole team.
    • Reports any discrepancies concerning the risk assessment and safe system of work as they arise.
    • Adjust onsite arrangements if they feel it is within their capability, documenting and agreeing with the work party any changes (anything that they are unsure about should be discussed with the safety team before proceeding).
    • Reports and documents details of any near-miss, accident, or incident that occurs during the work activity  (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Guidance-note-EBRD-PR4-health-safety-and-security (2020)).

Competent person

2.1.2.2   Appoint suitable persons for the work

Suitable workers should meet the following requirements:

1. have received training to become “certified workers”;
2. have sufficient experience in the type of work to be carried out;
3. have a suitable build for the work if the risk assessment highlights exceptional constraints as a result of the physical layout;
4. be fit to wear breathing apparatus if the work requires the use of such apparatus, and there is no medical advice against an individual’s suitability to work in a confined space.

“Certified worker” means a person –

• who has attained the age of 18 years; and
• who holds a certificate issued by a person whom the Commissioner for Labour has authorized to certify workers as being competent to work in a confined space(Occupational Safety and Health Branch Labour (2010)).

2.1.2.3     Isolation

The proprietor or contractor should, before allowing workers to enter a confined space, ensure that the confined space has been securely and completely isolated and separated from all the other connecting parts to prevent any materials that are liable to create a hazard from entering a confined space.

1. All the points of isolation should remain fully secure to ensure that the dangerous materials will not go into the confined space whilst the workers are working in it.
2. The confined space should be isolated from all unnecessary sources of power, e.g. electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc., by having them securely locked off, isolated, and properly labeled as appropriate to avoid accidental switching of power back to the confined space.
3. All pipelines connected to a confined space should be completely shut off or blanked off as appropriate. All connected valves should be fully closed, locked off, and properly labeled as appropriate to prevent being opened without authorization or accidentally.
4. Ends of service pipes that are still connected to sources of dangerous fume should be properly sealed by means of, e.g. metal blank, end-cap.
5. No work that may jeopardize the safety of workers inside a confined space should be permitted to be carried out outside and in the vicinity of the confined space. Barriers should be erected outside access openings of the confined space, with suitable warning signs and notices displayed. This is particularly important for floor openings, where hazards may arise from liquid spills, e.g. flammable liquid, solvents, or sparks created by cutting or welding in the vicinity.
6. Openings in a confined space (e.g. drain holes) should be sealed off if there is any possibility of hazardous gases or vapors backing up from another area and contaminating the confined space.
7. The confined space should be isolated from all non-essential sources of heat.
8. Effective steps should be taken to prevent ingress to the confined space of hazardous gas, vapor, dust, or fume, or in-rush of mud, water, or other free-flowing liquids and solids. Regarding the in-rush of water, particular attention should be given to the possible sudden changes in water level in sewers due to rainfall in the catchment area, changes in tide levels, sudden discharge of floodwater into the drainage culverts, etc.

2.1.2.4     Cleaning and cooling before entry

A confined space should be adequately purged before the entry of workers to ensure that no sludge or other deposits will give off hazardous gas, vapor, dust, or fume during the course of work. If steam cleaning is used, sufficient time should be allowed for cooling to ensure that it is safe to work in the confined space.

a. Steam cleaning

• • • Steam-volatile substances in confined spaces could be removed by steam cleaning.
    • For removal of corrosive materials, or materials which are not readily volatile, preliminary treatment by repeated washing with water, or with other suitable solvents or appropriate neutralizing agents should be applied prior to steaming.
    • The period of steaming should be adequate to thoroughly remove all the dangerous materials from the confined space. The required period should be decided and checked by the person who has been appointed by the proprietor of the industrial undertaking for the steaming work.
    • It would be necessary to re-steam where the confined space has been left for more than a few hours after steaming.
    • During steaming, adequate outlets for steam and condensate should be provided so that no dangerous pressure should be built up inside the confined space.
    • After steaming, adequate air inlets should be provided so that there should not be any vacuum being caused in the confined space by cooling and condensation. To prevent any heat stress problem, sufficient cooling of the confined space to room temperature is essential before allowing workers to enter the space.
    • When purging has been completed, all liquid remaining in the confined space should be drained away or pumped out as appropriate, and manholes should be opened to allow ventilation.

b. Inert gas purging

• • • To avoid the formation of an explosive mixture with air when a confined space containing flammable gas or vapor is opened up, the confined space may be purged by an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide).
    • If persons have to enter or approach a confined space that has been purged by an inert gas, the confined space should be purged again by fresh air to provide adequate oxygen into the confined space to support life. Thereafter, all parts of the air-purged confined space should then be thoroughly tested against the deficiency of oxygen to make sure that there is adequate oxygen to support life

2.1.2.5   Check the size of the entrance

Is the entrance big enough to allow workers wearing all the necessary equipment to get in and out easily, and provide safe access and egress in an emergency? For example, if the entrance is narrow, an air-line breathing apparatus should be used instead of a self-contained breathing apparatus which is more bulky and therefore restricts passage.

2.1.2.6    Provision of ventilation

You should always ensure that the confined space is ventilated sufficiently before entry. This may be achieved by opening all possible doors/hatches/additional openings for a significant period (e.g. 24-48 hours) before entry (NFU Mutual Risk Management Services Limited (2015)).

Four main ventilation techniques can be used to ventilate confined spaces:

1. 1. Supply, or positive pressure ventilation;
   2. Exhaust ventilation;
   3. Local negative pressure ventilation; and
   4. Positive-negative pressure ventilation.

Ventilation may be needed if natural ventilation is insufficient and also to make sure there is an adequate supply of fresh air for the duration of the work.

This is essential where portable gas cylinders and diesel-fuelled equipment are used inside or close to the space due to the dangers from a build-up of harmful gases/engine exhaust emissions etc. Warning: carbon monoxide in the exhaust from petrol-fuelled engines is so dangerous that the use of such equipment in confined spaces should never be allowed.

Oxygen must not be used for ventilation (for example to ‘sweeten’ the air), as it may increase the risk of igniting flammable gas, or may result in spontaneous combustion of certain substances.

Confined Space Ventilation

2.1.2.7    Air monitoring and testing

Testing Atmosphere in Confined Space

A hazardous atmosphere is any atmosphere that may incapacitate, injure, or impair an employee’s self-rescue or lead to acute illness or death to workers and rescuers who enter confined spaces (San José State University Environmental Health and (2013)).

Testing is a process by which hazards that may confront entrants are identified & evaluated and includes specifying tests to be performed in permit space.

Testing the atmosphere is necessary to check that the air is free from both toxic and flammable gases and that there is no deficiency in oxygen and that the air is fit to breathe. Testing should be carried out by a competent person using a suitable gas detector that is correctly calibrated and with the correct testing methods. Where the risk assessment indicates that conditions may change in the course of work, or as a further precaution, continuous air monitoring as advised by the competent person is required.

For instance, air at different levels and locations inside a confined space should be tested since dangerous gases with different densities relative to air “Table 2” may accumulate at different levels and locations of the confined space.

Table 2:Table: Gases Lighter and Heavier than air

Gases	Weight
Methane	0.55
Ammonia	0.59
Carbon Monoxide	0.96
Nitrogen	0.97
Air	1.0
Hydrogen Sulfide	1.2
Carbon Dioxide	1.5
Gasoline	3- 4
Jet Fuel, JP-8	4.7

Atmospheric testing should be made outside the confined space, with air samples being drawn out by suitable sample probes.

The gas testing equipment used in atmospheric air testing should be of the explosion-proof type. The manufacturers’ instruction manuals on the proper use of those meters and equipment should be strictly followed. All testing meters and equipment should be suitably calibrated and properly maintained as per the recommendations of the equipment manufacturers, with records properly kept.

Atmospheric testing of a confined space should be carried out as appropriate before it is certified as being safe to enter.

A proprietor or contractor should prohibit a worker from entering into the confined space until initial testing of the atmosphere of the confined space has been properly done from outside, with the testing results showing that the atmosphere inside the confined space is safe for entry.

The atmospheric testing should include the testing of the oxygen content, and the presence of flammable, toxic, or harmful gases, fumes, or vapors. Hazardous gases commonly found in confined spaces such as sewers, include carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4), and other flammable gases.

Testing Atmosphere in Confined Space

a. Oxygen

Oxygen (O2) is the most prevalent element, colorless, odorless, and tasteless; therefore, our senses can even remotely assess neither the presence nor the amount of the gas in a very active element. The property of oxygen is the fact that it constantly seeks “partners” with which to unite. Thus, for example, in conjunction with hydrogen, it forms water, it generates carbon dioxide with the carbon, and with iron, it creates iron oxide, and so on. There are plenty of cases in which so-called silent oxidation runs constantly. Under certain circumstances, the oxidation process accelerates and the reaction becomes exothermic, which means that it produces heat to the environment. When heat with combustible materials reaches a combustion temperature, self-ignition and burning with flames occur. Any burning is rapid oxidation and combustion is a continuation of burning. Oxygen itself does not burn, and in some cases even enhances combustion explosion. The air we breathe has about 21% oxygen. If the percentage of oxygen in breathing is reduced below 16%, one feels discomfort “Table 3”. Respiration is accelerated, and also pulse, while the buzzing in the ears occurs. When oxygen is decreased to the concentration of 15-10%, the man is still conscious, but his reasoning is wrong and he becomes tired very easily. If the amount of oxygen in the air falls to 10% or lower, there is a sudden fatigue, weakening pulse, and loss of consciousness (collapse). If he is quickly brought to fresh air and given necessary emergency assistance, he can still be saved. In case of oxidizing in normal conditions, such as the open air, the oxidation material takes oxygen from the surrounding air, and persons who come into contact with such material are not exposed to any danger. However, if the oxidation process happens in a confined space for a longer period, the percentage of oxygen content in the air is reduced, and the air loses oxygen and becomes enriched with other gases and vapors.

In general, testing for oxygen should be performed first because most combustible gas testing meters are oxygen-dependent and do not provide reliable readings in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere.

An oxygen-deficient atmosphere has less than 19.5% available oxygen. Any atmosphere with less than 19.5% oxygen should not be entered without an appropriate self-contained breading apparatus (SCBA).

Oxygen level is also decreased by another gas, such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen.

For the exposure limits of various dangerous gases, reference should be made to the publications made by the relevant authorities on occupational exposure limits.

Oxygen-enriched atmospheres (oxygen concentration of more than 23.5 %), which can be caused by welding and from the improper use of oxygen for breathing air, increase the risk of fire or explosions.

Table 3:Oxygen exposure (Physiological Reactions)

0xygen % at Sea Level	Physiol Physiological Effects
>23.5%	Explosive atmosphere; Extremely hazardous; Oxygen-enriched environment
19.5% to 23.5%	Normal breathable air; No adverse effects; Average working conditions
15% to 19.5%	Fatigue; Loss of stamina; Decreased ability to work
12% to 15%	Exhaustion; Increased respiration; Impaired coordination
10% to 12%	Confusion and anxiety; Poor judgment; Lack of coordination
8% to 10%	Mental failure; Fainting and vomiting; Loss of consciousness
6% to 8%	At eight minutes = 100% Fatal
4% to 6%	Lack of self-control; Convulsions and coma; Respiratory arrest; generally causes spasmodic breathing, convulsive movement, and death in approx. eight minutes. 4% – 6% O2 in air can lead to a coma in 40 seconds.

 

b. Other gases in a confined space

In the chemical industry, there are hundreds of types of flammable and explosive gases. All of these gases and vapors are flammable and explosive in a wide range, scale mixture with air, i.e. within the boundaries between the so-called lower and upper limits (Ana S. (2013)). These values are determined experimentally in the laboratory and are expressed in percentages. Out of all toxic gases, carbon dioxide, which is already in low concentrations and life-threatening, caused the most casualties. It is a gas that acts insidiously because of no taste or smell, so if the air and with low gas contents of this long inhalation, leads to its accumulation in the lungs. Other gases in this group of toxic gases, for example, hydrogen sulfide, have a fragrance that reveals them, but, unfortunately, their smell quickly becomes dull, thereby increasing risk. The third group of gas-noxious gases is characterized mainly, by the air-enclosed space. It reduces the percentage of oxygen necessary for the health and lives of people. We have already mentioned carbon dioxide and other inert gases. After extinguishing the fire in small confined spaces, which are filled with carbon dioxide, there is suffocation and unprotected workers due to lack of oxygen, or due to reduced percentage of required gas. Accidents with tragic endings happen in cases with closed tanks, boilers, and if there is nitrogen in the room. Deaths in hospitals are also evident, and deaths that asa consequence of the replacement of unmarked steel tanks that housed oxygen bottles filled with carbon dioxide.

There is another important division of dangerous gases that may endanger the safety and health of workers in indoor areas, including:

• • • flammable gases (flammable and exhaust gases from the engine);
    • vapors of flammable liquids, solvents, and thinners (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, acetone, tetrachloride and various hydrocarbons);
    • gases that develop during the process of fermentation (fermentation gases from organic matter, such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide,e and others in mixtures);
    • gases and fumes from wastewater (in the sewers and septic tanks);
    • natural gases, lighting, and the like;
    • gases that occur after an explosion and fire (in the mines after an explosion and after extinguishing fires in enclosed spaces).

Toxic gases can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, and throat. Some can prevent the body from using oxygen effectively, and all of them can injure or kill (Texas Department of Insurance (2021)).

2.1.2.8 Provision of special tools and lighting

Non-sparking tools and specially protected lighting are essential where flammable or potentially explosive atmospheres are likely. In certain confined spaces (e.g. inside metal tanks), suitable precautions to prevent electric shock include the use of extra low voltage equipment (voltage not exceeding 50 volts alternating current or 120 volts direct current whether between conductors or to earth) and, where necessary, residual current devices.

2.1.2.9   Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is any safety equipment that is worn to prevent injury in the workplace when engineering and administrative controls are not feasible or are being implemented.

PPE must be provided when necessary, by reason of hazards encountered that are capable of causing injury or impairment. They are no substitute for engineering, work practice, and/or administrative controls.

At best, PPE creates a barrier between the hazard and worker contact. They do not eliminate the hazard, so if the equipment fails then exposure occurs. For this reason, they must be worn always to provide protection.

According to the type of potential hazards, it is necessary to provide the appropriate personal protective devices.

A proprietor or contractor must ensure that any personal protective equipment provided is fit for purpose and meets all required safety standards.

In the end, all employees must demonstrate an understanding of the training and the ability to use PPE properly before being allowed to perform work requiring the use of PPE.

Training should be documented through a written certification to verify that each employee has received and understood the training requirements.

Employees shall be retrained due to:

• • • Changes in the workplace
    • Changes in types of PPE used
    • Inadequacies in an affected employee’s knowledge
    • Assessment that the use of assigned PPE indicates that the employee has not retained training
    • Or as determined by the results of the accident investigation

Depending on the need of hazard protection there are the following types of PPE:

1. 1. Eye Protection
   2. Face Protection
   3. Respiratory Protection
   4. Head Protection
   5. Foot Protection
   6. Hand Protection
   7. Fall Protection
   8. Body Protection
   9. Hearing Protection

1. Eye Protection

Eye Protection equipment “Figure 6” is required for exposure to eye hazards such as: Electrical Work, Heat, Flying, Particles, Molten Metals, Chemicals Liquid, Lasers, Chemicals Vapor gases, and other Eye Protection Equipment

 

Figure 6: Eye protection equipment

2. Face Protection

Face Protection is needed when work presents the potential of causing facial injury from physical, chemical, or radiation agents.

Examples of hazards:

• • • Contents under pressure
    • Splash hazard
    • Flying objects/particles
    • Electrical work

There are the following types of Face Protection equipment “Figure 7”: Face Shield and Welding Shield

Figure 7: Face protection equipment

3. Respiratory Protection

Respiratory Protection Equipment “Figure 8” is required for protection against hazards such as: Dust, Fog, Fumes, Mists, Gases, Smoke, Sprays, and Vapors. These contaminants can settle anywhere from the inhalable (nose) to the respirable (lung) region of the respiratory tract.

Figure 8: Respiratory protection equipment

4. Head Protection

Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can protect employees from impact and penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn hazards.

Head protection equipment “Figure 9” is required when employees are in areas where there is a potential for injury to the head from:

• • • Falling objects
    • Flying objects
    • Fixed object
    • Protruding material
    • High voltage equipment and work involving

Figure 9: Head protection equipment

5. Foot Protection

Food protection equipment “Figure 10” is required when employees are in areas where there is danger of foot injury due to:

• • • falling and rolling objects
    • slip hazards or objects piercing the sole, and
    • where employees are exposed to electrical hazards

Figure 10: Foot protection equipment

6. Hand Protection

The employer selects and requires employees the properly use hand protection equipment “Figure 11” when exposed to hazards such as: Skin absorption of hazardous substances, Lacerations or severe cuts, Punctures, Chemical burns, Thermal burns, and Extreme temperatures. Hand protection equipment are different kinds of gloves.

Figure 11: Hand protection equipment

7. Hearing Protection

Hearing protection equipment “Figure 12” is required to prevent noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing protection devices reduce the noise energy reaching and causing damage to the inner ear.

People should wear a hearing protector if the noise or sound level they are exposed to is close to or greater than the occupational exposure limits (OEL) for noise. There are three types of hearing protection: Earbuds, Earplugs, and Ear caps or bands.

Figure 12: Hearing protection equipment

8. Body Protection

Body protection equipment “Figure 13” is needed when work presents a potential for contamination or injury to other parts of the body such as legs, arms, back, and chest.

Body protection is principally designed to protect the torso, i.e. the chest and abdomen, from physical hazards (e.g. weapons or vehicles); biological hazards (e.g. human waste products); and chemical hazards (e.g. toxic or corrosive substances).

It is very important to select the right type of protection. The manager’s risk assessment should identify which hazards are likely to be encountered.

Hazards can be: Heat, Splashes, Hot/cold metals and liquids, Impacts, Sharp objects, Chemicals, Electrical work, Radiation

Figure 13: Body protection equipment

9. Fall Protection

Employers must set up the workplace to prevent employees from falling off of overhead platforms, elevated workstations, or holes in the floor and walls. Fall protection equipment “Figure 14” is required when there is a risk of falling at heights of 180 cm or greater when the area is not guarded or protected by other fall protection measures and when the work is performed at any height in aerial lifts, powered platforms, and similar equipment.

When standard fall prevention equipment, such as guardrails, cannot be used, a personal fall arrest system may be used for fall protection.

 

Figure 14: Fall protection equipment

2.1.2.10   Issuance of safety certificate

You must issue a safety certificate, which ensures that all the safety precautions are in place and a formal check has been undertaken before workers are allowed to enter or work in the confined space. Essential features of a safety certificate are: – location of the confined space; – names of workers who are going to enter the confined space; – names of persons who may authorize particular jobs and any limits to their authority; – risk control measures; – name of person who is responsible for specifying the necessary precautions (e.g. isolation, air testing, emergency arrangements, etc.); – name of person staying outside the confined space; – period during which workers may remain safely in the confined space.

2.1.3    Devise an appropriate emergency plan before the work starts

To deal with any serious and imminent danger to workers inside a confined space, appropriate emergency procedures should be formulated and implemented according to the nature of the confined space, the risks involved, and the nature of an emergency rescue. Provide and keep readily available in a satisfactory condition a sufficient supply of:

• • • approved breathing apparatus;
    • suitable reviving apparatus;
    • vessels containing oxygen or air;
    • safety harness and ropes;
    • an audio and visual alarm for alerting others outside the confined space.
      

      2.1.3.1   Communication procedures

As a person conducting a business or undertaking  (PCBU), you must ensure that a system of work is provided that includes:

• • • continuous communication with the worker from outside the confined space, and
    • monitoring of conditions within the confined space by a standby person who is in the vicinity of the confined space, and if practicable, observing the work being carried out (Safe Work Australia (2020)).

A communication system is needed to enable communication between people inside and outside the confined space and to summon help in an emergency. Depending on the conditions in the confined space, communication can be achieved by voice, radio, hand signals, or other suitable methods.

Effective communication is crucial in confined space rescue operations to ensure the safety of both the victim and the rescuers. Due to the challenging environment and potential hazards, clear and reliable communication helps coordinate actions, share information, and respond to changing conditions. Don’t forget that an emergency may occur during night shifts, weekends, and times when the premises are closed, e.g. public holidays. Also, consider what might happen and how the alarm can be raised.

When work is being carried out in a confined space, another person should be assigned to a station outside the confined space to maintain communication with the worker inside. A sufficient number of rescue personnel should also be made available outside the confined space. These persons need to be properly trained in rescues, physically fit and readily available to carry out rescue tasks, and capable of using any rescue equipment provided, e.g. breathing apparatus, reviving apparatus, lifelines, and firefighting equipment. They should also be adequately protected against any harm.

In current regulations and guidance notes the aim is not to be prescriptive in the use or type of communications. In many cases the selection and use of equipment, if any, is left entirely to the discretion of the operator. The general statement of regulations is that any communication procedures should be appropriate to the workplace and level of risk (Steve H., David B. and David L. (2000)).

Communication procedures to consider during confined space operations are:

1. Establish Communication Protocols

• • • Designate a communication leader who will coordinate and manage all communication.
    • Establish clear communication channels and frequencies for different teams and personnel involved in the rescue.

2. Pre-Rig Communication Systems

• • • Ensure that all personnel entering the confined space are equipped with communication devices, that fulfill the following requirements:
      • Reliable
      • two-way continuous speech communication capability
      • compact, rugged, environmentally protected from water ingress
      • rapid deployment capability with simple, intuitive operation and
      • minimum training requirements
      • IS certification covering all anticipated gases, vapors, and dusts
      • shift plus battery life
      • compatible with hard hats, gloves, and breathing apparatus
      • operation possible with hazardous material (Hazmat) isolation suits
      • any cable reels taken into the entry to be compact and
      • lightweight
      • roving capability for attendants to permit local mobility while
      • monitoring transmissions
      • emergency alarm button on the entrants’ equipment
      • hands-off voice-operated operation (where appropriate)

 

3. Use Clear and Standardized Codes

• • • Establish and communicate standardized codes or signals for different situations, such as distress signals, evacuation signals, or equipment malfunctions.

4. Check-In and Check-Out Procedures

• • • Implement a system where all personnel entering and leaving the confined space must check in and check out with the communication leader. This helps keep track of who is inside the space and their status.

5. Continuous Updates

• • • Maintain continuous communication between the confined space entrants and the control or command center. Regularly update the control center about conditions inside the space, progress, and any issues encountered.

6. Emergency Procedures

You need to consider how an emergency will be communicated from inside the confined space to people outside so that rescue procedures can start (e.g. a tug of the rope, radio communication or activating a lone worker alarm, etc.).

Clearly define emergency communication procedures for situations such as equipment failure, gas leaks, or injuries and ensure all personnel know how to initiate an emergency call or signal and understand the appropriate response.

7. Use Clear and Concise Language

• • • Use simple and unambiguous language to avoid misunderstandings. Ensure that all team members are familiar with the terminology being used.

8. Test Communication Coverage

• • • Verify that communication devices work reliably within the confined space environment. Sometimes, structures or materials can interfere with signals.

9. Backup Communication Methods

• • • Have backup communication methods available, such as hand signals, whistles, or alternative radio frequencies, in case the primary communication system fails.

10. Communication Training

• • • Train all personnel involved in confined space operations on effective communication procedures and the proper use of communication devices.

11. Coordinate with External Resources

• • • If external resources, such as fire departments or specialized rescue teams, are involved, establish communication procedures to coordinate their actions with your team.

12. Documentation and Record-Keeping

• • • Keep a record of all communication exchanges and important information shared during the operation. This documentation can be crucial for post-incident analysis and improvement.

Maintaining calm and clear communication under pressure in confined space operations is essential. Regular drills and training can help personnel become proficient in following communication procedures and responding to various scenarios effectively.

3 Confined Space Rescue

The key to saving someone’s life is for the rescuer to first take care of his or her own safety. It could result in loss of life and health if the rescuer is unable to save anyone and needs assistance from outside. Rescuers should employ the simplest techniques feasible and avoid overcomplicating their operation.

Without prejudice to the obligations referred to in Articles 5 and 6, of Council Directive 89/391/EEC the employer shall designate one or more workers to carry out activities related to the protection and prevention of occupational risks for the undertaking and/or establishment.

Rescue procedures should be established before entry and should be specific for each type of confined space. Confined space rescue represents one of the most challenging and dangerous rescue operations undertaken by fire protection agencies and industry today. Confined space rescue should always be a deliberate undertaking, planned before the confined space entry takes place, and conducted by trained personnel (Selman J. (2019)).

Confined space rescue operations are critical activities that involve the rescue of individuals who are trapped or incapacitated in confined spaces. These operations require specialized training, equipment, and procedures due to the unique hazards and challenges posed by confined spaces.

3.1 Types of Rescue Operations

There are several types of confined space rescue operations, depending on the specific circumstances and hazards involved.

1. Non-Entry Rescue In this type of rescue, rescuers do not enter the confined space but use specialized equipment such as winches, hoists, and retrieval systems to extract the victim from outside the space. This approach minimizes the risk to rescuers.
2. Entry Rescue with Atmosphere Monitoring Rescuers enter the confined space with proper protective gear and equipment. Before entering, they monitor the atmosphere for hazardous gases and ensure it is safe for entry. If the atmosphere is unsafe, they may use forced ventilation or other means to make it safe before proceeding.
3. Confined Space Entry Rescue This type of rescue involves trained personnel entering the confined space to reach and rescue the victim. Rescuers must use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), follow safety protocols, and work as a team to safely extract the individual.
4. Vertical Rescue Some confined spaces are deep, such as wells, silos, or underground chambers. Vertical rescue operations involve lowering rescuers and equipment into the confined space and then raising them back out with the victim. Specialized ropes, harnesses, and pulley systems are often used in vertical rescue.
5. Horizontal Rescue Horizontal rescue operations occur in confined spaces with limited access points, such as tunnels or pipes. Rescuers may need to crawl or navigate through tight spaces to reach the victim and extract them safely.
6. Confined Space Water Rescue When confined spaces are flooded, water rescue techniques and equipment, such as life jackets, flotation devices, and water-specific retrieval systems, are used to rescue individuals trapped in water-filled confined spaces.
7. Hazardous Material (HazMat) Rescue Some confined spaces may contain hazardous materials or substances that pose additional risks. HazMat rescue teams are specially trained to handle these situations, including decontamination procedures.
8. Medical Rescue: In some cases, the victim may require immediate medical attention. Medical rescue teams may be called in to provide medical care within the confined space or during the extraction process.
9. High Angle Rescue: When a confined space is located at a significant height, such as on a scaffold or platform, high-angle rescue techniques are used. These operations involve descending or ascending at an angle to reach and rescue the victim.
10. Multi-Team Rescues: Complex confined space incidents may require the coordination of multiple rescue teams with different specialties. These teams work together to ensure the safe rescue of the victim while addressing various hazards.

Regardless of the type of confined space rescue operation, safety is paramount. Proper training, equipment, communication, and coordination are essential to ensure the safety of both the victim and the rescuers. Additionally, all rescue operations should adhere to applicable regulations and standards, such as OSHA standards in the United States, to minimize risks and ensure compliance with safety guidelines.

3.2  Rescue equipment and tools

Confined space rescue equipment and tools are essential for ensuring the safety of both the victim and the rescuers during confined space rescue operations. The equipment provided should be appropriate for the likely types of emergencies identified in the risk assessment and should be properly maintained. It should be readily available, whenever and wherever confined space work is undertaken.

All equipment provided for the purposes of emergency arrangements should be properly maintained and inspected. Inspection should include periodic examination and testing as necessary. This shall be in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions or with the requirements of health and safety legislation as appropriate.

The specific equipment required can vary based on the type of confined space, the hazards present, and the nature of the rescue.

In general, for the successful conduction of confined space rescue operations the following equipment should be provided (Department of Consumers and Business Services (2024)).

3.2.1     Personal Protective Equipment

PPE is explained in detail above in chapter 2.1.2.9

3.2.2     Testing and Monitoring Equipment

A confined space gas monitor is used to check the atmospheric conditions of the space before entry. It is also used to check these conditions continuously while in the space.

Specifically, this monitor checks to see if there is too much or not enough oxygen. It is checking to see if explosive gases are present. It is also checking to see if either hydrogen sulfide or carbon monoxide are present. All four of these atmospheric hazards are common in confined spaces.

These monitors can have an internal pump or no pump. They can run on alkaline batteries or rechargeable batteries. They can have top-mount or side-mount displays.

Figure 15: Testing and monitoring equipment

3.2.3   Communication equipment

Two-way radios for communication between rescuers and control personnel allow workers to instantly communicate with other team members so they can complete jobs quickly and thoroughly.

Figure 16: Communication equipment

3.2.4     Retrieval and Lifting Equipment

1. • Winches and hoists for vertical rescue
   • Tripods and Davit systems for raising and lowering personnel
   • Retrieval lines and systems for victim extraction
   • Lifting straps and slings

 

Figure 17: Retrieval and Lifting Equipment

3.2.5    Ventilation Equipment

Confined space ventilation equipment is essential for maintaining safe working conditions in enclosed or confined spaces where the air quality can deteriorate due to a lack of fresh air circulation. Confined space can be ventilated by way of forcing in fresh air that displaces contaminants and dilutes the stale or contaminated air already in the space. Exhaust ventilation uses an exhaust system to remove contaminants at the source.

Here are some common types of ventilation equipment used in confined spaces:

Ventilation Fans Portable ventilation fans “Figure 18”, often equipped with flexible ducting, are used to provide fresh air or remove harmful gases from the confined space. They come in various sizes and airflow capacities to suit different applications.

Figure 18: Ventilation Fans

Blowers High-capacity blowers “Figure 19” can move a significant volume of air and are used in larger confined spaces or when a higher airflow rate is required. They are often used in combination with ducting.

Figure 19: Ventilation Blowers

Ducting Flexible ducting “Figure 20” is used to direct airflow to and from the confined space. It’s essential to ensure that fresh air reaches the workers inside the space or that contaminated air is safely exhausted.

Figure 20: Flexible ducting

Explosion-Proof Equipment In some cases, where there’s a risk of flammable gases or vapors, explosion-proof ventilation equipment “Figure 21” is required to prevent the possibility of ignition. These housings are usually made of cast aluminum or stainless steel. They have sufficient mass and strength to safely contain an explosion should flammable gases or vapors penetrate the housing and the internal electronics or wiring cause an ignition.

 

Figure 21: Explosion-Proof Equipment

3.2.6  Appropriate lighting equipment

When natural lighting is not sufficient, additional lighting “Figure 22” will be provided. It must not exceed 12 volts in damp conditions and will be equipped with a ground fault circuit interrupter, so they can see and exit the space quickly in an emergency. Confined space lighting must be high quality, in most cases explosion-proof, and small enough to fit through narrow openings and tight spaces.

 

Figure 22: Lighting equipment

3.2.7 Rope and Rigging Gear

Safety rope is also known as a lanyard, rope lanyard, lifeline, and kern mantle rope, important not only for protecting your safety in a fall situation but to lifting and lowering heavy safety equipment and people, but also for assisting in fall arrest recovery.

Rope and Rigging Gear equipment include “Figure 23” include:

• • • • Static and dynamic ropes
      • Pulleys and carabiners for setting up rescue systems
      • Ascenders and descenders for vertical access and egress

 

Figure 23: Rope and Rigging Gear

3.2.8   Medical and First Aid Equipment

• • • • First aid kits
      • Stretchers and immobilization devices for victim transport
      • Automated External Defibrillator (AED)

Anyone whose duties require them to work in confined spaces is required to pass a medical fitness assessment. Plus, people who work at heights such as industrial abseilers, riggers, telecommunications engineers, and more, may require a medical to check their fitness for their specific work.

A medical assessment should be undertaken before an individual embarking on working in confined spaces or at height and every two years thereafter (unless medically indicated) or whenever a significant change in health or working practice occurs that has the potential to compromise an employee’s ability to carry out tasks safely.

3.2.9    Lockout/Tagout Equipment

• • • • Lockout/tagout devices to isolate energy sources and prevent accidental activation of equipment during rescue

3.2.10     Entry and Egress Equipment

• • • • Stairways and ladders for safe entry and exit
      • Confined space entry permit systems

3.2.11    Fire and HazMat Equipment

A HAZMAT situation is any circumstance that threatens human health and safety or the environment. If you find yourself in a HAZMAT incident, it is important to stay calm and follow the instructions of an emergency HAZMAT partner.

• • • • Fire extinguishers
      • Decontamination supplies for HazMat situations

3.2.12    Drones and Remote Inspection Tools

Drones equipped with cameras for remote assessment “Figure 24”, surveillance, and inspections are being used in almost every industry that requires visual inspections. By collecting visual data on an asset’s condition, drone inspections help entrants avoid dangerous situations.

Inspection drones are transforming manual inspection processes, allowing entrants to speed up their collection of inspection data while removing slower manual steps that place them in danger.

Figure 24: Drones and Remote Inspection Tools

3.2.13    Communication and Documentation Tools

Tablets or computers “Figure 25” for recording information and documenting the rescue operation.

Figure 25: Communication and Documentation Tools

 

It’s important to note that the selection and use of rescue equipment should be based on proper training, thorough risk assessment, and adherence to relevant regulations and standards. Rescue teams should be well-trained in the operation of the equipment and the specific rescue techniques required for different scenarios. Additionally, maintaining and inspecting equipment regularly is crucial to ensure its reliability and effectiveness during rescue operations.

3.3      Rescue team roles and responsibilities

It’s important to note that each confined space rescue team may have variations in roles and responsibilities based on the specific needs of the organization, the type of confined space, and the level of complexity involved. Effective communication, training, and coordination among team members are essential for successful confined space rescue operations.

Confined space rescue teams play a crucial role in ensuring the safety of workers who need to enter and work within confined spaces. A confined space rescue team is composed of trained and skilled individuals who are responsible for conducting safe and effective rescue operations in confined spaces. Each team member has specific roles and responsibilities to ensure the successful outcome of rescue missions while minimizing risks.

OSHA’s Permit-Required Confined Space Regulation (29 CFR 1910.146) is “performance-based” – and does not provide a specific number of personnel required for stand-by operations. It simply requires that the team or service gets the job done in a safe and timely manner and the number of team members is left up to the employer or agency.

The number of team members is also based on the rescue service’s ability to perform rescue from the types of confined spaces to which they may respond.

NFPA 1670, Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents, (2017 Ed) Chapter 7.3.2.1, states that “The role of a confined space rescue service is intended to include entry into the space to perform a rescue and, as a minimum, shall be staffed to provide sufficient members with the following exclusive functions:

1. Rescue team leader (supervisor);
2. Rescue attendant;
3. Rescue entrant/entry team of sufficient size and capability to perform the rescue;
4. Backup rescue entrants of a sufficient number to provide immediate assistance.

In general, confined space rescue teams are composed of no less than six members to perform all the required functions listed. However, the size and capability of a team required to perform a specific rescue will depend on many factors, including the condition of the patient, the size and shape of the space, the size of the access opening, and the hazards present.

Below are some of the roles and responsibilities of a confined space rescue team member.

3.3.1     Entry Supervisor

Entry Supervisor is a person (such as an employer, foreman, or crew chief) responsible for determining if acceptable entry conditions are present at the permit space where entry is planned, for authorizing entry and overseeing entry operations, and for terminating entry. Entry supervisor may serve as attendant or authorized entrant, as long as that person is trained and equipped as required for each role filled.

The confined space supervisor is accountable for:

• • • • Know the hazards that entrants may face during entry, including the signs, symptoms, and consequences of exposure
      • Understand how to control or eliminate hazards associated with the space
      • Verify that all tests specified by the entry permit have been conducted and that all procedures and equipment specified by the permit are in place before signing the permit and allowing entry to begin
      • Inform entrants and attendants about the hazards and conditions associated with the space and the methods used to eliminate or control the hazards
      • Terminate the entry and cancel the entry permit as required by the entry procedure
      • Verify that rescue service providers are available and that they can be contacted in an emergency
      • Remove unauthorized people who enter or who attempt to enter the space during entry operations
      • Re-evaluate conditions in the space whenever responsibility for an entry operation is transferred, new hazards are identified, or when the work performed in the space changes

3.3.2 Attendant (Topside/Outside Attendant):

The confined space attendant is an individual who stands outside the permit space monitors authorized entrants and performs all attendant’s duties assigned in the employer’s permit space program. He must remain there until relieved of their duties by another attendant and monitor the activities of ethe ntrants.

The attendant’s job is deceptively simple and may seem like they only need to act if the entrant needs something, but this role is far more proactive than might be imagined.

Like the entrant, the attendant must also know how to use all appropriate equipment and know about hazards that they may face during entry and the signs, symptoms, and consequences of exposure. In addition, the attendant must be able to identify, keep track of, and maintain communication with the entrants and control access to the space, remove unauthorized personnel, initiate emergency procedures if needed perform evacuation and rescue if necessary, and call for the rescue team if needed.

The attendant’s key role is to protect the safety of the entrant. As such, they are not permitted to take on any duty that might interfere with their primary safety-related responsibilities.

1. 1. Know the hazards entrants may face during entry and the signs, symptoms, and consequences of exposure
   2. Be aware of the behavioral effects of hazards on entrants
   3. Keep an ongoing count of entrants and ensure that the count identifies who is in the space
   4. Remain outside the space during entry operations until relieved by another attendant
   5. Communicate with entrants to monitor their status and to alert them if they need to evacuate
   6. Summon emergency responders as soon as entrants need to escape from the space
   7. Perform nonentry rescues following your established rescue procedure
   8. Do nothing that would interfere with monitoring and protecting an entrant
   9. Monitor activity inside and outside the space and order an immediate evacuation when:

• • • • There is a hazardous condition in the space
      • An entrant’s behavior is affected by exposure to a hazard
      • A situation outside the space could endanger the entrants
      • It is not possible to perform the duties required of an attendant

 

An attendant can monitor more than one space at a time if the duties for one space do not interfere with duties for another space. If an attendant’s attention is focused on one space – during a rescue, for example –all other spaces that the attendant is monitoring must be evacuated or another attendant must take over those duties.

When unauthorized people approach or enter a permit space while entry is underway, attendants must:

• • • • Warn them to stay away from space
      • Tell them that they must exit immediately if they have entered the space
      • Inform the authorized entrants and the entry supervisor if unauthorized people have entered the space

Attendants can be given the authority to remove unauthorized people who attempt to enter a space during entry operations as long as the attendants do not enter the space.

3.3.3 Entrants

The confined space entrant is the team member authorized by the employer to enter a permitted space. Therefore, the entrant must be aware of the hazards associated with confined space entry in general, particularly those present in the permitted space being entered.

Since this team member has the highest risk of exposure to dangerous conditions, it is important that they know the modes of exposure and recognize the signs and symptoms of exposure to any hazardous materials present and the consequences of exposure.

In addition, they must be properly trained in using all equipment necessary for performing their work as well as the use of safety, communications, testing and monitoring equipment, and any other equipment necessary for safe entry and rescue from a permit space.

As an additional measure of safety, the entrant must work with the attendant by communicating regularly and keeping the latter updated on their status, any exposure to hazardous materials, and if they see any prohibited conditions that could make working at the site unsafe.

The entrant must always stay alert to any warnings from the attendant regarding the site’s safety and be prepared to evacuate in case of the need for evacuation, either through an order from the attendant,  from the team leader, or an evacuation alarm.

The entrant must leave the space immediately when:

• • • • An order to evacuate is given by an attendant or the entry supervisor
      • An entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a dangerous situation
      • An entrant detects a hazardous condition
      • An evacuation alarm is activated

3.4      Emergency response procedures

A proprietor or contractor should formulate and implement appropriate procedures to deal with any serious and imminent danger to workers inside a confined space and should set up arrangements for rescue of workers working in a confined space in case of an emergency. Arrangements for emergency rescue will depend on the nature of the confined space, the risks identified, and the likely nature of an emergency rescue. Account has to be taken not only of accidents arising from a specified risk but also of any other accident, for example, incapacitation after a fall.

A rescue team consisting of a sufficient number of trained persons should be readily available. The same roles apply in a confined space rescue that applies to a normal confined space entry. Only with a confined space rescue, there is an additional role that is assigned -Incident Commander. The priorities of the IC are mainly:

1. 1. Responder safety

1. 1. Safety of the victim
   2. Assessment of the situation
   3. Type of Rescue
   4. Development of the rescue plan
   5. General public control and safety

They should readily reach the confined space in time and be able to get the persons inside the confined space out in case of emergency.

As to the number of trained persons required in a rescue team, several factors, including the nature of work, the hazards inherent in the confined space in relation to the work and work methods proposed, need to be considered depending on the circumstances of the case. In devising an emergency plan, a proprietor or contractor should assess the above factors against the knowledge and experience of the rescue team in such work and recommend the most suitable number of rescue persons required.

All members of the rescue team should have been properly and adequately trained in the related emergency rescue procedures, including the detailed particulars of an emergency rescue plan and full knowledge of how to properly use all the rescue equipment.

A proprietor or contractor should devise an evacuation procedure for prompt evacuation from the confined space in case of a sudden change in the working or the environmental condition that may cause imminent danger to the workers working in a confined space.

An emergency response plan should be properly formulated, including all the suitable rescue arrangements and the appropriate emergency procedures, and adopted for each entry into a confined space.

Drills for the rescue and emergency procedures should be conducted periodically for testing of the emergency response plan, and for practising the procedures and use of rescue equipment.

To protect people working in or near restricted spaces and to handle any risks and incidents that may occur, confined space emergency response procedures are essential. All workers engaged should get full explanations of these procedures, which should also be routinely reinforced through drills.

An overview of emergency response protocols for confined spaces is provided below:

3.4.1    Risk Assessment and Preplanning

When assessing the risks, it must be made of all the information available about the confined space (Gareth B. (2022)).

• • • Identify and assess potential hazards associated with the confined space.
    • Develop an entry plan that includes hazard identification, risk assessment, and control measures.
    • Determine the necessary equipment, tools, and resources for a safe rescue.

3.4.2      Communication Protocols

• • • Establish clear communication channels and methods for all personnel involved in the operation.
    • Designate a communication leader responsible for coordinating communication between the confined space team and the control center.

3.4.3     Entry Permit System

• • • Implement a permit-to-work system that outlines the steps, precautions, and authorization required for entry into a confined space.
    • Ensure that the entry permit is complete, signed, and approved by relevant authorities before starting the operation.

3.4.4     Personnel Training and Competency

• • • Ensure that all personnel involved in confined space operations are adequately trained in rescue procedures, equipment use, and communication protocols.
    • Regularly conduct training and drills to maintain skills and enhance preparedness.

3.4.5     Personal Protective Equipment

• • • Ensure that all personnel have and wear appropriate PPE for confined space entry, including respiratory protection, harnesses, helmets, and gloves.

3.4.6     Atmospheric Monitoring

• • • Before entry, conduct atmospheric testing to determine if the air inside the confined space is safe for entry. Continuously monitor the atmosphere during the operation.

3.4.7     Emergency Action Plan

• • • Develop a well-defined emergency action plan that includes steps to be taken in case of various scenarios, such as equipment failure, hazardous atmosphere, injuries, and more.

3.4.8     Emergency Communication

• • • Establish a clear process for initiating emergency communication, including distress signals and notifying the control center or external emergency services if necessary.

3.4.9     Evacuation and Rescue Procedures

• • • Clearly outline the procedures for evacuating the confined space in case of emergencies.
    • Define the methods and equipment required for rescue, whether it’s non-entry rescue, entry rescue, or specialized techniques.

3.4.10  External Assistance

• • • Determine how to request external assistance, such as fire departments or specialized rescue teams, and ensure that they are familiar with the layout and hazards of the confined space.

3.4.11  Equipment Checks and Readiness

• • • Regularly inspect and maintain all rescue equipment to ensure it is in proper working condition.
    • Conduct equipment checks before each entry to confirm everything is functional.

3.4.12  Post-Incident Reporting and Analysis

• • • After the emergency response, conduct a debriefing to assess the effectiveness of the response and identify areas for improvement.
    • Document the incident, actions taken, and lessons learned for future reference.

3.4.13  Review and Update

• • • Regularly review and update your confined space emergency response procedures to incorporate any new regulations, equipment, or lessons learned.

Remember that confined space emergency response procedures should be tailored to the specific hazards and conditions of each confined space. These procedures are essential for protecting lives and minimizing risks during confined space operations.

4         Conclusions

Recognizing confined spaces is the first step in reducing fatalities because they can be found in almost any occupation. Confined places should be evaluated before entering and constantly monitored because deaths in confined spaces frequently result from poisonous or low-oxygen environments.

A work organization’s unavoidable duty is to prepare its employees to recognize the risks they can encounter in dangerous confined spaces and to uphold workplace discipline. Many workers died as a result of failing to follow the fundamental instructions. Logically, general safety laws cannot cover all scenarios for varied work kinds amid a range of risks in tight spaces across numerous businesses. Therefore, it is the responsibility of industry-employed occupational safety and health specialists and sanitation engineers to follow the relevant general workplace safety rules and create specific laws for plant and site safety. In no event should these requirements be less stringent than the general ones.

The key to saving someone’s life is for the rescuer to first take care of his or her own safety. It could result in loss of life and health if the rescuer is unable to save anyone and also needs assistance from outside.

There is time to consider and pick the best way to remove the victim from the scene if the scene is secure and the rescuers are not in any danger.

Rescuers ought to keep things simple and employ the most efficient techniques feasible. To make your job easier and reduce part of the patient’s suffering, be aware of your surroundings and be aware of how to evacuate the patient.